Aquarium Homes For Mars (And Other Radiation Worlds)

(Article inspired by Clark Lindsey of Hobby Space)

Imagine waking up every morning, excited by the mere fact that you are living a hundred million miles away from your home planet, Earth. You slowly ease out of bed, being very careful not to jump too high lest you bump your head against the ceiling (a minor setback of living within reduced gravity).

After briefly enjoying a few hops in a third of your weight, you slip on your gravity suit (due to doctors orders), feed the pigs and dream about someday actually seeing a Martian sunrise from your underground outpost, instead of going above ground at night due to radiation.

Ladies and gentlemen, welcome to the awe inspiring red planet.

Despite the fact that this potential reality may not look too exciting, it is one many governments on Earth would be content with, as they would rather have their astronauts bored to death than "microwaved" via solar radiation.

While some may argue that anti-radiation drugs and portable magnetic shields would allow us to roam the red planet at will (as well as any other radiation safe world), both of these items may increase the overall cost of solar outposts, which may encourage tax payers to grumble about the price tag.

Instead of reducing astronauts into future cave dwellers, why not enclose these future space homes within thick layers of glass and liquid water?

Of the many materials used to protect humans from radiation exposure, lead, aluminum and water are probably the "easiest ways" shield our fragile bodies from the wrath of the Universe.

Even though most colonists would probably prefer a "wall of lead" (or even aluminum) around them, launching the material from Earth (or mining via the asteroid belt) may prove to be very costly, especially when one adds taxes to the final bill.

Water ice on the other hand seems to have placed its finger prints on every solar world save four (Mercury, Venus, Luna aka Earth's moon and Io) and would provide a far cheaper means of securing our foothold upon these semi-hostile worlds.

Although using water as a cheaper alternative may sound reasonable to some people, using glass may not. After all, would it not be easier to simply use thick, translucent plastics instead of heavy glass?

While plastic does have its advantages over its older friend, it may be easier to create glass off world, mainly due to the fact that silica, one of the main ingredients of of sand (or quartz if you live on Earth) can be used to "easily" create glass on other worlds.

On Mars silica is present within the soil, while on other worlds such as Callisto, and Ganymede, silicon is contained within the crust, respectively. This may be true of the other worlds orbiting Saturn, Uranus and Neptune, although NASA will have to confirm this with future probes (and hopefully rovers).

While water and glass may help provide an inexpensive way of shielding colonists from harmful rays, scientists could also grow radiation eating fungi within the watery walls. This would provide further protection, especially if a lunar colony operates within its host planet's radiation belt.

Even though it would probably be wise for off world settlers to also carry portable magnetic fields and anti-radiation drugs with them, they would only have to seriously consider using them if they were going to travel well outside the protection of their base, or if they received warning of an impending solar storm.

Aquarium homes may not be the "end all" solution for us dwelling in the heavens, but they could allow humans to actually raise their kids upon the surface of other worlds (beholding their beauty), instead of below it.

NASA To Starve Mars, Feed Outer Planet Missions

(Hat Tip: Space Pragmatism)

After having successfully launched (and landed) two rovers on Mars, with a third on the way, NASA is readjusting priorities and focusing on the outer gas planets.

(Red Orbit) However, Griffin referred to a recent evaluation from the US National Research Council which gave NASA an "A" for its ventures to Mars, while it received a "D" for outer planets and a "C" for research and analysis.

He announced that a major robotic mission to the outer planets was in the works. "We've rebalanced our planetary science portfolio accordingly," Dr Griffin told the conference.

"As I discussed elsewhere, we've learned more, and had more questions to answer, about the many other planets and moons in our Solar System.

"So after Mars Science Lab - the current planetary sciences flagship - we are now planning in earnest for an outer planets flagship to Europa, Titan or Ganymede."

Even though news like this will not make the Mars Society very happy, NASA's new direction will probably help out Jovian scientists who have been patiently waiting to launch their own probes (and perhaps rovers) to the outer planets.

While Europa and Io are too radioactive for human settlement, Jupiter's other siblings (Ganymede and Callisto) may hold much promise for our future species, along with Saturn's Titan (which may rival Earth in beauty).

Could Hydrogen Fuel Replace Solar Power?

(Hat tip: IsraGood, Image Credit: Jerusalem Post)

With the supply of nuclear fuel limited (especially for Americans), future space colonies will probably need to look towards the Sun as their source of energy.

While this may benefit colonies located within the inner solar system, beyond the asteroid belt solar power is practically useless.

In order to get around their energy dilemma's, future colonists may have to rely upon hydrogen fuel in order to keep the lights on.

(Israel 21^st Century) Most hydrogen vehicles on the road use a liquid form of the material, which requires a super strong and super heavy storage tank. Liquid hydrogen is unstable and needs to be insulated from the excess shocks of bumps and potholes that are a part of everyday driving, so the tanks themselves are large and heavy, and hold at most 20 liters of fuel - enough for barely 250 kilometers of driving. [...]

The difference? C.En's tank uses hydrogen gas, collected from the environment (i.e. not produced from fossil fuels) and enclosed in a thin but leak proof glass container. The best part: You'll be able to buy your "gas" at automotive or discount stores, fueling up every 600 kilometers or so.

"We can build a 60-liter tank that can travel up to 600 km. and weighs no more than 50 kg.," Stern said, unlike tanks currently used for liquid hydrogen that weigh hundreds of kilos.

"Our company's breakthrough is in accumulating hydrogen in a glass material that is very small, only a few microns," said Stern, who is also president of waste treatment company Environmental Energy Resources (EER).["]

If humanity ever decides to settle upon Ganymede and Callisto, future residents could simply extract the hydrogen from the ice water and power their homes without having to haul around a nuclear reactor.

Other icy moons around Saturn, Uranus and Neptune would also be able to benefit from this, as would help cut down the cost of maintaining these outposts (which may convince Earthen governments of their value in supporting them in the first place).

Radiation Safe Worlds

Of the 83 colony worlds that dance and prance around our golden star, only six worlds (excluding our home planet) hold the potential of being future homes, nine if you include Mercury, Pluto and Charon.

Despite the fact that future technology could eventually open up all of these worlds for human habitation, only a few of them may attract "the masses" after the first person sets foot upon their dusty soil due to the "evil R word"--radiation.

Contrary to the various rumors, taking heavy doses of radiation does not turn one into the Hulk, one of the members of the Fantastic Four or Spider Man via a radioactive spider bite.

Radiation, whether cosmic or solar has the potential of seriously roasting you alive, if not turning one into a vegetable.

Even though humans can tolerate "various degrees" of radiation, our bodies seem to be quite content with the level of background radiation our species receives on planet Earth, which is about 0.35 REM's (aka Roentgen Equivalent Man) a year.

Higher doses of radiation can prove to be fatal towards future colonies, and some researchers do not recommend levels above 50 REM within a year or 25 REM during a 30 day period as it can lead towards some serious side affects (as highlighted in the chart below).

While radiation can be countered by using water, lead and aluminum, parents may be hesitant to breed upon foreign planets and moons (let alone raise kids upon them) if it will result in their children acquiring serious birth defects.

In order to determine which worlds are "family friendly," one only has to look at how much radiation a world receives to determine whether or not it is suitable for large populations or should be left alone for industrial space companies.

Starting out with Mars, one often dreams about metropolises dotting the surface of that crimson sphere. While Mars may hold much promise for future colonies, its annual dose of 15-20 REM may give some settlers second thoughts.

While future Martians may be able to combat the threat of radiation by building cities within its lumpy magnetic field, the red planet as a whole may not spawn dense cities until a globe sized artificial magnetic field can be constructed.

Moving outward to the Jovian system future space settlers may find more fortune living on Jupiter's moon Callisto. Orbiting just outside of its angry parents radiation belt, Callisto receives approximately 0.01 REM a day (or about 3.65 REM a year).

Coupled with its prime location in the outer solar system, Callisto may outpace its Martian rivals population wise, and may be second only to Earth as far as future inhabitants go.

Unfortunately Jupiter's other lunar daughters do not fare as well as Callisto, with all three of these worlds (Ganymede, Europe, Io) bathed in Jupiter's harsh radiation belt, putting them at a disadvantage compared to their much colder, "uglier" sister.





Traveling further outward towards Saturn, one may find it strange that humans may call the smog world of Titan home sweet home. While its surface may be hidden from the human eye, its atmosphere may be thick enough to protect residents from both solar rays as well as Saturn's radiation belts.

Even though there are other worlds such as Luna (aka Earth's moon), Ceres, and even Ganymede that may eventually be civilized by our ever growing race, these worlds may not conquered right away due to the "invisible killer" lurking in the shadows.

While it would not be surprising to see scientists and industrial corporations setting up shop on these hostile worlds, the bulk of humanity may choose to remain on these radiation safe worlds until over population forces them to conquer these overlooked spheres roaming silently among the stars.

Which Worlds Should Humanity Skip?

With our species blessed with 83 worlds that orbit our home star, why would we choose to settle some and skip the rest? After all, would it not be in humanities best interest to spread our glory over every celestial moon, planet and dwarf planet?

While covering every centimeter of every orbiting sphere may sound glorious, it may not be practical (or even desired) by our future descendants. Just as the human race chooses to (mainly) live within fertile valley's and hills over deserts and mountains, so to our children may opt to skip worlds with "too much hassle" involved in settling them.

A prime example of this would be Mercury. Although humanity may posses the capability of colonizing this sphere, its close orbit towards the Sun may make it uninhabitable, at least during the day time (thanks to solar radiation).

Even though Mercury may contain many precious metals beneath its baked crust, it will probably never boast large metropolis's upon its surface, unless Earth decides to turn it into a planetary penal colony.

Moving outward to Venus, one could easily realize why humanity would never ever want to set foot on the planet, let alone through its thick atmosphere. The atmospheric pressure on Venus is about 90 times that of Earth, strong enough to crush a human unprotected.

Hosting sulfuric acid within its upper clouds, Venus may be more valuable as an interplanetary garbage dump than a viable colony (even for science).

Over in the Jovian system, Jupiter's moon Io shares a similar fate to Venus. Although lacking an atmosphere, Io does house numerous volcanoes upon its surface, some of which spew hot sulfur hundreds of kilometers from its surface.

Even if scientists were able to withstand the deadly radiation that engulfs this world, they would probably not enjoy swimming in one of Io's numerous lava lakes.

Despite the fact that Io's lunar sister is known to harbor an abundance of water ice, Europa may only gather a mournful glance from a few scientists observing from Ganymede. Even though many scientists suspect that Europa may have oceans beneath its surface, the world is jealously guarded by its father Jupiter, who bathes its lunar daughter in deadly radiation.

While some have suggested digging a hole beneath the icy surface, doing so may only guarantee ones fate within the icy walls, as Europa has a fairly active surface, which could result in one getting crushed by its icy "tectonic plates."

When it comes to radiation, Saturn's ring worlds do not seem to fare any better than Europa. While the icy moons of Mimas, Enceladus, Tethys, Dione, and Rhea may find their surfaces scoured by robots (in search of water ice), these lunar bodies unfortunately orbit within Saturn's radiation belts.

Even though engineers will probably find a way to shield themselves with artificial magnetic fields (or even create enormous planetary versions), the added cost of doing so may make living on these worlds too expensive for the "average space colonist."

The moons of Uranus and Neptune who dance around their green and blue parents, respectively may share a similar fate to their Saturian cousins.

Although its quite possible that these moons may eventually be settled by humanity, they may find themselves harboring space pirates (to the delight of solar governments everywhere) as their distance from Earth and lack of nearby resources may make them unattractive for the masses.

Heading out towards the Kuiper belt, one wonders whether humanity will have the attention span of settling any of these frozen objects at the edge of our solar system.

Although colonizing both Pluto and Charon could provide a few engineering delights, one wonders if humanity may simply decide to ignore these historical relics as they head out to other promising star systems.

Which Worlds Should We Colonize First?

Our race is indeed blessed to inhabit a fertile world that orbits our favorite star, Sol. With 83 colony worlds dancing around our yellow sun, one can only imagine all the possibilities of our brave race inhabiting them all.

Of course, reality has a way of correcting our fantasies, and just as humanity refuses to dwell near or upon certain mountains, canyons and islands, so our young species may opt to skip over certain worlds in order to inhabit others.

So which worlds hold the promise of housing tomorrows children?

The first (and probably most obvious) world earth's kids may call home is the moon (aka Luna). The moon will be humanities first stepping stone way from Earth, and will most like jump start our journey into space, as its soil may contain valuable resources that can pay for all the fancy equipment needed to survive off world.

Skipping Earth's nearest neighbor would probably be disastrous, as our sensitive public is barely able to handle any "boo boo's" that happen in the solar abyss, much less a fatality. If terraforming ever became a reality, the moon would be a prime candidate for another Earth, as it already inhabits the "Goldilocks zone."

Journeying outward, our dusty neighbor Mars would come into play. Despite lacking resources of its own to attract businesses upon its crimson soil, Mars does hold an abundance of water which would make a human settlement somewhat possible upon its rusty surface.

(Video: A visual of what Mars would look like if a large portion of its ice water melted and flooded the planet. Credit: NASA)

Mars is also conveniently located near the asteroid belt, which could help turn this barren world into an industrial paradise. Although other worlds (such as Earth) could always mine the asteroid belt with their own ships, it may be easier (and cheaper) to outsource that task to the Martians, the way many American business outsource their "sneaker and jacket making" to China.

Expanding further throughout the solar system, dwarf world Ceres would come into play. Thought to hold an abundance of water beneath its surface, Ceres could easily serve as a way station, supplying crews with water and fuel in the middle of the asteroid belt.

Entering the realm of the Jovian giant Jupiter, humanity would probably end up settling on Callisto. Not only does this heavily cratered moon harbor life necessities (such as CO₂ and water), but it could also serve as a gateway towards the other gas giants.

Although Callisto may play a crucial role in our quest to colonize our star system, its bigger brother Ganymede may end up becoming the Jovian favorite, and perhaps even the prime world of the gas giants.

Entering our last stop would be Saturn's Titan, a world believed to contain multitude of methane lakes. Although Titan's methane weather cycle may be worth billions, its unique environment may become the attraction of the solar system, as its air pressure may make life very interesting for sports enthusiasts, artists and even musicians.

Of all the worlds that orbit our star system, these six worlds will probably be illuminated by the lights of future cities upon its surface.

But what about the other 76 worlds that grace our star system? Are not they worthy of being called home by future residents?

Unfortunately many of these other worlds will probably not be settled due to various reasons (at least voluntarily), although you will have to wait until next week to find out why most of these worlds will probably be skipped by our human race in our quest to colonize the stars.

Note: Due to lack of time images (and video) will be added later.

Update: Added video and images, as well as broke up last paragraph.

Radiation Proof Space Camera's?

(Image: Radiation hardened camera's could help locate oceans on Europa. Credit: NASA via MSNBC)


Carbon based life forms are not the only ones to fear deadly radiation. Apparently, our cybernetic friends loathe the energetic particles just as much, although they lack the will of HAL to do anything about it.

Previously whenever scientists sent camera's into the radiation depths of the Jovian giant Jupiter, by degrading the circuits over time. A new invention however may enable these cameras to withstand the fury of Jupiter's radiation tantrums.

(MSNBC) The technology driving the new detector is a capturing system that immediately converts electromagnetic signals into digital information, pixel by pixel. The method bypasses the standard pathway traveled by analog signals from sensors to the point where the signal is converted to digital data.

High-energy radioactive particles in space degrade these circuits, or pathways, over time and add to noise in the data by making pixels appear artificially bright. [...]

"Our detector converts the analog signal to a digital number within the pixel," Figer told LiveScience. "Radiation does not have time to affect the signal. And once the data is digitized it's essentially impossible to pick up noise."

This technology should help aid future colonists, especially if they consider establishing outposts on Europa or colonizing Ganymede.

This also might aid scientists in observing the turbulent weather that dominates the Sol star's largest planet within its system.

Jupiter's Callisto: Gateway To The Gas Giants

If scientists are unable to develop faster than light or wormhole technology by the 22^nd Century, humanity may find themselves using gravitational assistance in order to travel throughout our solar system.

But in order to reach these distant gas giants alive (or at least moderately healthy), humanity may need a way station to resupply on food, supplies and oxygen.

Since the Jovian king (aka Jupiter) has been frequently used to fling satellites across the gulf of space, establishing a colony inside its domain may be the next logical step for conquering the outer solar system--with Callisto being the key.

Callisto orbits its Jovian parent at a distance of almost 2 million kilometers. Unlike its bigger brother Ganymede, Callisto lacks a well defined magnetic field, having to instead rely upon "daddy Jupiter" for protection.

Orbiting well beyond the wrath of Jupiter's radiation belts, Callisto lies in a relatively quiet radio zone. With its surface lacking some of the more "interesting" features such as volcano's and enormous mountain ranges, this tranquil world provide a stable (and safe) habitat for future colonists. Callistian residents would also be in the position to settle Ganymede, as well as establish scientific outposts upon the ice world Europa.

Callisto also harbors water and CO₂ ice upon its surface, which would enable future colonies to not only grow food and create fuel for not only themselves, but also for way faring space travelers. This would allow future explorers to easily replenish their supplies, and then use Jupiter's gravity to slingshot towards other planetary systems.

Having a similar scenario as Mars, Callisto's location in the solar system would enable this lunar world to establish itself as an interplanetary pit stop, ensuring a vital economy based mainly on trade instead of vital resources.

Conquering this heavily cratered moon would provide yet another stepping stone for humanity, allowing our species to slowly (but surely) spread our population throughout our "tiny" star system.

Is Jupiter's Ganymede A Second Earth?

Here lies father Jupiter
An angry, Jovian world
Orbited by his only son,
And three lunar girls.
~Darnell Clayton, 2007

(Image Credit: Windows to the Universe)

With the human race slowly (but surely) reawakening to the possibility of inhabiting other worlds, much of our species focus has been colonizing the surface of both the Moon and Mars.

Although these bodies will provide invaluable lessons to the human race, they may be tens of thousands of years away from becoming suitable homes for our young race, let alone for the rest of animal (and plant) kingdom due to space radiation.

Even though scientists are working on ways to provide shielding against this cosmic terror, unless humanity is able to develop a global magnetic field, any world we attempt to colonize will be at the mercy of the Sun (and other celestial objects).

Despite the fact that terraforming is at least centuries away from perfecting any world, Ganymede may hold the key towards providing a second home for hundreds of millions, if not billions of individuals in the not so distant future.

Unlike any of the 83 terrestrial bodies that orbit Sol (or a parent world), Ganymede is protected by two magnetic fields, one from its Jovian parent and the other hosted upon this icy moon. This dual layer of protection shields the icy moon from not only foreign radiation (via the Sun or beyond) but also domestic (via father Jupiter).

Water, whether in ice or liquid form, is a key ingredient to any future home off world. Fortunately Jupiter's Ganymede is known to harbor water ice in abundance, with hints of an ocean a hundred miles beneath the surface.

With enough water to spare, future colonists will not only be able to use this invaluable resource for the day-to-day affairs of life (such as drinking, watering plants, etc.) but also as a potential energy source, not to mention oxygen as well.

Although Ganymede is not known to posses any major resources such as minerals or metals (at least in abundance), Jupiter's asteroid Trojans and moons may provide the necessary building materials for a future colony.



(Image: Magnetic sail star ship, Credit: NASA)

Despite the distance of these space rocks from Ganymede (not to mention Jupiter itself) any star ship harnessing the power of magnetic sails will find travel to and from the Jovian system relatively easy. By using Jupiter's enormous magnetic field as a boost, magnetic star ships could potentially haul precious minerals towards Ganymede's surface, allowing future inhabitants to construct homes upon this frozen world.

Although well outside of the habitable zone, Ganymede could serve as humanities second home with colonists raising children, crops and animals within shielded biospheres. Colonists would be able to roam the surface of the world without much fear of the Sun's or Jupiter's wrath, with plenty of water resources around for nourishment and energy.

With metallic resources well within reach via magnetic sails, Ganymede may quickly find itself the envy of the solar system for centuries to come, second only to Earth in not only economic importance, but also habitation itself.

Artificial Magnetic Fields For Artifical Worlds

(Image Credit: NASA)

Aside from war and disease, the biggest threat to our (future) space faring species is radiation. Whether it comes from the Sun, a Jovian parent, or from a distant black hole, radiation can easily determine which worlds will be ruled by humans and which ones will be roamed by our robotic friends.

Although many may point to underground colonies as a means to survive on these sterile worlds, such an idea may not attract the masses (as living underground does not provide a glamorous view of the universe). Worse, underground colonies may have a counter affect on us colonizing our solar system, with the vast majority of people opting to live on the home world than off world.

But what if we could construct gigantic magnetic devices enabling a planet or moon to be shielded by a magnetic field? Such a device would enable our species to not only colonize Jupiter's Europa and Saturn's E-ring moons (which are too radioactive for surface habitation, respectively) but also enable various plants and animals to thrive on the red planet.

Without such a device our species would be limited to colonizing Jupiter's moons Ganymede and Callisto, not to mention Saturn's Titan. Although radiation on Mars may be tolerable, it would probably not be the ideal place to terraform as any ecosystems exported there may suffer from the wrath of a solar flare.

Despite the fact that this technology would be centuries away, it may be reasonable to explore current ways of developing artificial magnetic fields, as it would enable us to not only conquer our own solar system, but those that orbit other stars.

(Image Credit: Windows to the Universe)

Is Outer Space Really Our Salvation?

If an observer were to dip their head inside the space industry, one would notice the rush to settle humanity either on the Moon, Mars or upon future space stations orbiting Earth. There seems to be a mass movement dedicated towards ensuring that our species establishes a "beta home" elsewhere, just in case we are wiped out from either an asteroid or a biological and/or nuclear war.

But if we were even able to settle on other terrestrial bodies tomorrow, would our species be able to survive without Earth?

Unlike the other worlds that orbit our star, Earth lies in what many scientists regard as the habitable zone. Within this region of space, a planet hosting a friendly atmosphere can have liquid waters gracing its surface, an important feature enabling complex ecosystems to survive (let alone thrive).

Other worlds such as Mars lie outside of this zone, and despite showing signs of harboring liquid water within its soils, it lacks the sufficient temperature to maintain water in this state upon its surface. Although some argue that aggressive terraforming could alter Mars into a second Earth, it would take at least a thousand years (if not longer) to transform this barren world, not to mention trillions of dollars.

Unlike most other rocky bodies in the solar system, Earth also boasts a magnetosphere, a key ingredient required for living organisms as cosmic radiation is not known to be healthy. Although both the Moon and Mars each maintain an active magnetosphere, neither are strong enough to cover their entire worlds, respectively.

Even though Mercury and Jupiter's moon Ganymede boast a global magnetosphere, both are either too close or too far away from the sun to host vibrant environments for plants and animals, at least in the near future.

Unlike Earth, most (if not all) of the worlds and moons that orbit the Sun do not harbor soils that are generally friendly towards plant life. Although Mars is often regarded by many as humanities second home, its soil may be too toxic for growing plants upon it directly.

Despite the fact that our lunar neighbor shows some promise (however small), it lacks large bodies of water necessary to support life on that airless body.

Even if humanity were able to transport millions of people upon the Moon and Mars, and yet lose Earth, our species would probably face the cold reality of extinction. Establishing colonies upon other worlds is no guarantee towards our survival abroad, as colonies would still be dependent upon Earth for tons of fertile soil for growing grain (as well as animals for meat) in the near and distant future.

Whether by cosmic chance or divine will, Earth is the oasis of the solar system, the only world capable of supporting life without the need of biospheres (something we still have not perfected). Earth is the "only Eden" that humanity has, whether we like it or not. Outer space is an opportunity for our species, one that can drastically improve life upon our home world whether it be through energy, communication, agriculture or medicine.

But space (with all of its resources) could never replace our world, and if our species can not take care of our Earthen cradle, then there is no guarantee that will be fit enough to survive on a second world.

Finding Life On Europa...Via Earth?

A team has set out to the cold regions of the Arctic in order to discover the source of sulfur that has been appearing there for some time. They hope that these discoveries could help us locate life on a distant frozen world orbiting Jupiter.

(Astrobiology Magazine) "It's out of the norm," Pappalardo says. "Biology is expected to play a part in this. The fact that all [these forms of sulfur] were present in close proximity suggests that life is involved."

While Pappalardo acknowledges that Europa's outer surface contains too much radiation to ever support life, these findings could help answer the question as to whether life could exist below the surface of Europa.

I am not too sure how successful they will be, as Enceladus looks more promising, but a discovery of life on a foreign lunar body would help motivate humanity towards the stars.